From the Book HANABI Japan Publications 1986 ISBN - 0-87040-706-6 Fireworks! How fantastic they are. and how fascinating to the eyes and minds of children. When it comes to fireworks, even adults suddenly find they still have the eyes and minds of children. Even small fireworks--squibs and roman candles and Catherine wheels--hold us spellbound for the brief time they are alight and moving. Howmuch morethoselargerfireworks that burst high up in the air in flowers of breath- taking beauty. No wonder the Japanese call them hanabl, or flowers of fire. What is the reason of this fascination? It is. no doubt. the manifestation of some hidden power in the world of nature. It is the power of fire, in which the Greek philosopher Heraclitus found the source and origin of all existence. It is a fearful power when it gets out of control, as in the Great Fire of London or in the fires of Tokyo towards the end of World War 11. Yet for all its fear, it fascinates us. In the form of fireworks, however, we find not its fear but only its fascination. At the same time, fireworks, more than other forms of fire, leave in us a feeling of evanescence. No sooner do they appear, like the sudden unfolding of a bright flower in the darkness. than they disappear. They come, as it were from another world. in a brief moment of intersection between time and eternity--and then they are gone. Such. we reflect, are all our joys in this imperfect world. Such, too. is the life of man--beautiful but brief. and the briefer it is. the more beautiful it becomes. My own memories of fireworks go back to the days of my English childhood. when we celebrated Guy Fawkes Day on the fifth of November. This celebration was instituted to recall the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot. to blow up the two Houses of Parliament. In 1605. Guy Fawkes was the man who was caught in the act of setting fire to the fuse. Thus, unlike the Japanese who like to let off fireworks on hot nights of summer. we English associate them (like ghost stories) with a cold night in winter. And if we recall the historical origin of Guy Fawkes Day, we also associate the fantasy of fireworks with the fear of gunpowder. These two things, the fantasy and the fear, strangely fit together. It seems that the fire powder, which is common to both, originally came from the East. from India and China. There it was invariably the fantastic aspect that prevailed, even in time of war, when the fire was used not so much to destroy as to terrify the enemy. This is perhaps because of the contemplative attitude to nature characteristic of the East. In the West, however, our attitude is more practical, as in the famous dictum of Sir Francis Bacon that "knowledge is power". So when this strange powder came to the West. towards the end of the Middle Ages, it was chiefly used for its destructive properties, as gunpowder. Looking up the word in the Oxford Engllsh Dlctlonary. I find it interesting that the first recorded use of ''fireworks" in its fantastic sense occurs in 1575, in connection with a firework display given at Kenilworth Castle in honour of Queen Elizabeth. On this occasion, it is conjectured. the young William Shakespeare himself was present. For Kenilworth was only a few miles from his home in Stratford; and in his playA Mldsummer Nlght s Dream he recal Is the entertainments presented on the occasion, though not the actual fireworks. Elsewhere, however. he refers more generally to "some delightful ostentation. or show, or pageant, or antique. or firework" in Loves Labours Lost. Both in Shakespeare's time and since. fireworks have commonly been regarded in the West as a special. because expensive, form of entertainment. Only on the fifth of November are they as it were domesticated and democratized. in our back gardens at home. In the past. when fireworks were let off at official celebrations--as at the royal display in 1749, for which Handel composed his famous music for the Fireworks--they were entrusted to the expert care of "fireworkers", as soldiers of the artillery were called. In the East, however, they have been closer to common life. Of course. there are the many special occasions, as at Nagaoka and the Sumida river. when vast sums of money are spent on their display; but they are also let off in private homes--where they still have gardens--on many a summer night. To my English mind it is as if every night in summer is a commemoration of Guy Fawkes, without the guy. This is what makes me still think. as I thought on my first arrival in Japan some thirty years ago. that this country is indeed a fairyland. In the daytime its fairy-like quality may be concealed beneath the increasing advance of industrialism; but at night it is this very advance that contributes to the multitude and magnificence of the firework displays in summer. In proof of this assertion I need do no more than point to the pages that follow, with their silent but eloquent testimony. Yes. Japan is at once the land of hanaml (or cherry-blossom) in spring and of hanabl (orfireworks) in summer. It is still. for all its industrial development, the land of flowers and of fairies. On the surface the Japanese may seem a practical, even materialistic people; but one only has to scratch this surface a little, to discover their fire and fa ntasy. ~Professor of Sophla Unlverslty) The Origin of Fireworks Development from Signal Flares In the strictest sense. fireworks as we knowthem today were born sometime after the invention of gunpowder. However. it is said that the idea of fireworks had already existed in ancient India and Persia. as well as in classical Greece and Rome. Looking further back in history in search of the origin of fireworks, we encounter the use of flare signals--the alleged prototype of fireworks--which can be traced back to long before the time of Christ. In 21 1 B.C., China was unified by Shih-huang-ti of Chin. To arrest the penetration of the nomads from the northern steppes. he builtthe GreatWall of China, which was designed to have signal towers at strategic points. They were used to warn the army behind the wall of any intrusion by enemy forces. Smoke signals were used during the day and bonfires at night. It is believed that saltpeter (potassium nitrate), the main ingredient of black gunpowder, was added to the firewood. Black gunpowder is known to be the oldestform of explosive. Composed of 70% potassium nitrate, 15% sulphur. and 15% charcoal. it is indispensable in fireworks. It has been widely known in China since ancient times that the addition of potassium nitrate to firewood made the fire burn in a peculiar manner. A story is told that in 616 A.D., during the Sui dynasty, a flare signal--summoning reserve troops to military service--was set off to entertain the morose wife of the emperor Yang-ti. When the soldiers gathered. all with a sullen look on their faces, the sight was so amusing that it made her laugh. Some historians believe this to be the first instance of the use of flares as fireworks. In the following Tang dynasty (618-907), China witnessed the invention of gunpowder. Considering that potassium nitrate had already been in use for a long time. this came somewhat late. Even if fireworks seem to have been used during Tang times with the introduction of gunpowder, a different theory claims the first appearance of fireworks in China during the Southern Sung dynasty (1127-79). During this period, proper fireworks are said to have been introduced into the market and used in court entertainments. Florence--the Birthplace of Modern Fireworks? The basic technology for the creation of gunpowder was first developed in China, and Arabian merchants introduced it to Islamic countries in the 1 3th century. The knowledge of this novelty was relayed to European intellectuals via Arabian literature during the latter half of the century. and in the early 14th century Europeans acquired the use of gunpowder during the Fireworks and the Edo Period Crusades. Following the introduction of gunpowder. fireworks came into use in Europe. The first such use is said to have taken place in Florence, and from there fireworks spread rapidly into all parts of the Continent. For this reason Florence is claimed to be the birthplace of modern fireworks. Nevertheless. no literature exists to support this claim. The origin of fireworks in Europe cannot be traced to a specific period or location as in the case of China. The history of fireworks seems to have been shrouded in mystery due to the inherent dangers and the need for secrecy deriving from their military significance. Fireworks Become Popular after the Advent of leyasu No one is sure when fireworks were first used in Japan. There are numerous conflicting claims as to the date. It is said that the first person of note in Japan to see fireworks was Tokugawa leyasu. In a biography. the Butoku-hennen-shusel (Annals of Butoku), as well as in the Sunpu-fu Seljl roku (The Political History of the Suruga Government) and the Kyuchu Hlsaku (Secret Court Policy), he is described as having gone to view a fireworks display. The above mentioned documents are records of the two meetings on August 3 and 6. 1612. between leyasu and an Englishman, John Salis. the founder of a trading house in Nagasaki. Salis. as an official representative of James 1, presented a letter from the king to leyasu at one of these meetings. The meeting between leyasu and John Salis is a historical fact. and the letter from James I is reportedly preserved in the British Museum. As a result of the absence of reliable sources prior to leyasu's first encounter. this event has been considered the start of the history of fireworks in Japan. Following this. fireworks became popular with the daimyos. or feudal lords. The spectacles orchestrated by major lords of Owari, Kishu, and Mito, as well as of Sendai and Kaga, were particularly popular, attracting flocks of the common people of Edo seeking relief from the summer heat to watch the fireworks. The third shogun. Iemitsu, a famous fireworks fan, allegedly encouraged the use of fireworks on various occasions. This provoked the rapid popularization of fireworks among the common people. Eager to embrace anything novel, the people quickly made them a part of their lives. Boating on the Sumida River Reaches the Pinnacle of Luxury Boating on the Sumida River started in earnest after the transfer of the Tokugawa shogunate to Edo. The first such pleasure-seekers were the daimyos, who installed roofs on their boats and drank sake with courtesans. Boating reached the height of its popularity during the reign of lemitsu. The Great Fire of 1657 devastated Edo and brought boating trips to a halt. However. the city recovered and expa nded at a startling speed. so that in the late 1 7th century the daimyos. hatamotos (warrior classes directly under the shogun). and the merchants prospered and led lives of extravagant I uxu ry. The completion of Ryogoku Bridge in 1659 stimulated much boat cruising along the river, attracting many who sought to escape from the summer heat. Later, fireworks launched into the sky around the bridge became one of the attractions of the city. The Noryo Hanabl ('coolness-in-summer' fire- works) were similar to today's Gangu Hanabi (fireworks for the general public). Vendors on boats peddled their firecrackers to the customers on the roofed boats and displayed them at their request. Although the use of fireworks had spread also in the city. the enforcement of orders restricting the use of fireworks to the Sumida River resulted in the spectacle of large number of pleasure boats emitting fireworks during the summer. The practice of celebrating the opening of the boating season with fireworks dates back to 1733, the year following a great famine. in which swarms of locusts decimated crops in western Japan. Many people also died in the epidemics that ravaged the land. The shogunate (under the eighth shogun Yoshimune). seeing the gravity of the situation, sought to dispel evil spirits and illness by holding a suljln-sal. or water god festival. on the Sumida River. On this occasion. eating houses were allowed to open on Ryogoku Bridge and fireworks were launched. This was later adopted as one of the customs for celebrating the commencement of the boating season. Spurred by such displays of fireworks. the daimyos. whose residences were located along the river, sought to entertain themselves with their own firearms and so-called Noroshi Hanabl (flare fireworks) which were invented by their own explosives experts. This provided the basis for the large-scale firework spectacles created later by specialist craftsmen. The Two Great Craftsmen Who Captivated Edo The development of Ryogoku fireworks is without doubt due to the two great craftsmen Kagi- ya and Tama-ya. The founder, Kagi-ya, was dexterous with fireworks even from childhood and is fabled for his trick of balls of fire scaring government officials who visited his home from time to time. He first began selling fireworks at his store in Nihonbashi in 1659. The sixth descendant of his family was the first to win charge of the Ryogoku fireworks, and contributed to the success of Kagi-ya as the annual spectacle which attracted the greatest attention. Tama-ya started out as an apprentice of Kagi-ya but soon became very popular on his own account. so that his reputation exceeded that of his former master. It was during this period that fireworks appeared in many ukiyoe ("floating world") prints. Many such pictures featured Tama-ya fireworks, attesting to their popularity and sophisticated tech nology, However, a fire in 1843 in the Tama-ya workshop burned down not onlythe workshop itself but many neighboring houses. At the time. fire-- both arson and accidental fires--was considered to be a serious crime. particularly on the day before the shogun's pilgrimage to Nikko, and Tama-ya was expelled from Edo and his family heritage destroyed--despite the immense support of the people. Meanwhile. Kagi-ya continued to be responsible for the Ryogoku event. and his name was handed down through the generations. Fireworks After the Meiji Restoration Fireworks Become Fashionable during the ''Meiji Period'' The chaos created by the fall of the shogunate distracted the attention of the people of Edo from firework displays on summer nights and the Ryogoku event was suspended after 1863. It was revived, however. on June 8. 1868. The excitement created by firework displays at that time was extremely high; the enthusiasm of today is no match. The fact that special trains were put on by the national railways in 1 874forfireworkdisplays is eloq uent testi mony to th is. The enthusiasm of the common people for firework displays was not affected by Western influences, and remained as great as it had been in the Edo period. However, when the Ryogoku Bridge, Jampacked with spectators. started to split in two in 1897. new laws were decreed forbidding booths to be opened on the bridge on the day of thefireworks and prohibiting persons from even strolling on the bridge. From then on, sightseeing boats became subject to rigid supervision. and firework displays by persons other than the official organizers were prohibited. Introduction of a New Type of Gunpowder Brings Dramatic Changes Despite such administrative interference, the growth of the popularity of fireworks saw no end; this was not unrelated to the development of firework technology at that time. The introduction of potassium chlorate into the country around 1879 brought a revolutionary change to Japanese fireworks. Fireworks had until then used black gunpowder, composed mainly of potassium nitrate, sulphur, and charcoal. which ignited at an estimated 1700 degrees. This had given the explosion a dull red color. The addition of potassium chlorate raised the combustion level to more than 2000 degrees allowing bright reds and greens to be emitted. The debut of the new ingredient drew a line between the older "Japanese" fireworks and their new "Western" counterpart. and was a turning point flreworks technology. This great innovation in the Meiji period also witnessed a considerable number of accidents caused by insufficient knowledge in handling such chemicals. Especially because of the high risk involved in mixing potassium chlorate with other chemicals--increased susceptibility to slight shocks and friction--serious accidents occurred. Nevertheless, the skilled craftsmen of the time vied with each other to create a spectacle of unparalleled grandeur in the face of such danger. Fireworks competitions were held around the country. and many a skilled craftman launched his masterpieces to display his skills. This was the dawn of the age of modern fireworks. During the Taisho period (1912-1923), the development of skills was most clearly seen in changes in the shape of fireworks. For instance, one type of firework that appeared in the mid-Taisho period is called the poka mono (crack shell). because it splits into two in the air and lets out a flow of stars in one direction. Iike a willow swaying in the wind. In another. called kowarl-mono (small crack shell). balls that suggest tiny chrysanthemums and peony blossoms pour out from the cracked shell. It is recorded that the sight of petals scattering in the dark sky impressed and thrilled the spectators. In the late Taisho period. the kowarl-mono was improved to show double bipetalled flowers or an additional core to the flower, called the yae-shln (double core). A Blank Phase in History Competitions among firework craftsmen peaked during the Taisho and early Showa period. The effects they created were astoundingly beautiful; yet these men refused to discuss any matter concerning their know-how and the efforts they made to create their ephemeral shows. The tradition of passing on trade secrets only to the craftsman's own son died hard. Knowledge was kept under cover and restricted to close relatives. Hence, the invention and development of a new type or a new skill necessitated the stealing of secrets through persistent attempts. Fireworks in Prayer for Victory in War Launched Daily The peace enjoyed by these craftsmen did not last long. Japan was treading the path toward war. and the craftsmen were forced to use their skills to aid the war effort. The outbreak of the Pacific War suspended fireworks altogether. Virtually all of the fireworks plants were either closed or operated as subcontractors for military equipment. The world- class technology had to yield to the forces that dominated society. and the industry entered a blank period. This vacuum coincides with the darkest times suffered by the Japanese people. Postwar Recovery After the long war had finally ended in August 1945, the craftsmen who had been drafted into military service returned home. Nevertheless, it was not a time to seek pleasure in fireworks; there was a basic need to be satisfied-- hunger. People all around the country suffered from food shortages. and every day saw a struggle simply to survlve. After the war. the occupation forces (GHQ) issued a decree forbidding the use of all firearms and swords. as well as explosives. including fireworks. The Americans at GHQ were not able to understand that fireworks were a symbol of peace after years of suffering during the war and were entirely different from weapons. The misunder- standing arose from the fundamental difference in character between Americans and Japanese. However, an unexpected chance came in May 3, 1947, when a fireworks display was to take place in the plaza in front of the Imperial Palace to commemorate the proclamation of the new Japanese constitution. The first such event for a war-weary people decorated the skies of Tokyo, still shattered and in ruins, and represented a pivotal date in the history of fireworks Continued persuasion of the GHQ to allow the holding of such exhibitions led finally to approval in 1948. On August 1 . the people were able to confirm for the first time in a long while the resurrection of a peaceful Japan near the Ryogoku Bridge on the Sumida River. On September 18 of the same year. there was even a national fireworks competition in the Hama- cho district to test the skills of individual craftsmen. The time had arrived for craftsmen to concentrate once again on displaying their skills. Later, despite suspensions caused by pollution, the population explosion and the deterioration of traffic conditions accompanying the nation's economic growth, fireworks were revived and are now attracting large crowds every year. as well as a solid reputation nationwide. Of the competitions for craftsmen in Japan, the most traditional are the Starmine Concours in Ise City, Mie Prefecture. the Large and Consecutive Fireworks Contest in Tsuchiura City, Ibaragi Prefecture. and the Original Fireworks Contest in Omagari City, Akita Prefecture. These competitions have provided craftsmen with a chance to test a wide range of colors and shapes and the use of modern types of fireworks. New technologies are being adapted for brighter color and more impressive form--and at the same time greater safety. These master craftsmen must constantly take these two requirements into simultaneous consideration. How Sl